Key place: CHINA | Mandarin – the language and the person

Before the era of colonialism exploded in the 17th century, the Portuguese were already sailing the seas and establishing commercial ports on the coast of Africa (West and East), India and many other Asian countries, including China and even Japan. In China, despite the Chinese dislike for foreigners, they managed to be accepted as trading “partners” (it is not clear how) and built a very successful trading port in Macau. This port was in connection with other Portuguese ports in the area, for example in Japan, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The final aim was, of course, to ship many riches to the capital of the Portuguese empire, Lisbon.

“Mandarim” is originally a Portuguese word (mandarim), meaning a Chinese public official of a higher rank. Rumour has it that the Portuguese used to make fun of these bureaucratic officials, who were considered pedant, thus, the word mandarim could be used in a depreciative way. The Portuguese adopted this word from the Sanskrit mantrin via Malay mĕntĕri, meaning “counsellor”, as in “the one in charge”.

In truth, the term “mandarin” does not really exist in China, it is a European term. “Mandarins” were actually public servants that existed for as long as emperors existed. To become a public servant, one had to pass a very strict and demanding exam called 科举 [Keju], meaning “imperial examination”. The candidates would be (literally) locked up in cells for three days, dressed with a robe given to them (to avoid cheating) and would answer all kinds of questions from different fields of knowledge. Some would die during that time; many would fail the exam. However, those who passed the exam had a lifelong job waiting for them. The candidates could take the exam at any given age, so many would repeat it until old age.

Education has always been very important in China, thus, these public servants (which were also scholars) were highly regarded by society. They were also examples and defenders of moral values, studying the arts, science, law, and politics throughout their lives. Confucius was one of those public servants in the law field. Things did not work very well for him in such a role and he ended up going back to his hometown to become a teacher. As a teacher, however, he was a success and his teachings set the basis for the entire moral framework of China, until our days. He lived at the same time as Sun Tzu, the one who set the military framework of China.

As part of the imperial staff, public officials spoke the language of the imperial court, which much later has become the standard language for the entire country. For Europeans that is “Mandarin Chinese”, which is named after those public officials. In Chinese, it is 中文 (Chinese language/writing). The first character is an abbreviation for 中国 (China or China-related). Some people say there are different languages in China, others say they are just different dialects. Standard Chinese is based on the language/dialect of Beijing (the old imperial court “language”), whose written version has been simplified in the 20th century to make it easier to teach it to the whole population and facilitate its spread throughout the country. Generally, this is the “language/dialect” learnt by foreigners.

Some decades ago, business people from outside China were encouraged to learn the Cantonese language. Cantonese comes from “Canton”, which originates from the Portuguese word Cantão, which was how Portuguese merchants would pronounce Guangdong, the Chinese province where Macau and Hong Kong are located. As both these cities became international trading ports (Macau was Portuguese and Hong Kong was British), during a period of time the international Chinese language for business was Cantonese. Not so much anymore.

Yet, “Mandarin” can have other meanings. It can refer to a type of orange, originated from Asia and similar to a tangerine, probably named after the Chinese imperial public officers due to their orange robes. The public offices also “gave” their name to a bird: the Mandarin duck that is very adorned, like the imperial mandarins…

Sources:

This article is part of the WORD CHRONICLES series

Word Chronicles are articles where the meaning of words, concepts, and perceptions are discussed.

Key place: CHINA | Deciphering Chinese language I

As any (good) translator will tell you, translating is not about translating words, it is about translating an entire culture. Language is closely related to culture and it reflects the environment and the landscape in which such language was developed. The classic example is Greenland. Inuit languages are the ones which have more words for different types of snow and ice. It is literally a matter of life or death to know exactly what kind they are encountering.

European languages are based on an alphabet that is used to build words and those words are organised in sentences. The Chinese language is based on characters, which basically are images. If in European languages you can learn how to “make” words and build sentences, in Chinese language you need to memorise all the characters. Yet, there are some clues that can help you with that.

Chinese culture is rooted in nature, especially animals and the five elements: Earth (土), Water (水), Fire (火), Wood (木), Metal (金). For example, in China, the years are counted according to the moon cycles, but they are not numbered; they are named. Each year represents an animal and an element. 2026 is the year of the Fire Horse (火马年) – 火 means fire; 马 means horse; 年 means year. Last year was the year of the Wood Sake (木蛇年) – 木 means wood; 蛇 means snake; 年 means year. There are twelve animals and five elements, which results in sixty year cycles.

Characters can be composed by repeated characters. For example, Fire (火) represents a bonfire. If you put two bonfires, one on top of the other, you get “burning hot” (炎). If there are three bonfires, you get “flames” (焱). The same for Wood (木), which represents a tree: two trees are a forest (林) and three trees are a dense forest (森). Now, putting a character next to another character can change their meaning. For example, Fire (火) and Mountain (山) results in Volcano (火山), which basically is a “fire mountain”. If instead of “fire” you have “ice” (冰), you have an “iceberg” (冰山). Although there is logic, you still need to know it by heart.

Some characters can work together to compose new characters. For example, “fire” is in the character 灯, meaning “lamp”, because in the old days lamps only existed with fire. Likewise, “wood” is in the character “bed” (床), because in the old days beds were made of wood.

The characters for Feng Shui (風水) literally mean “wind” and “water”. It is a theory to organise one’s house according to the five elements and the cardinal directions. Each house is divided into nine dimensions of life and each division is located geographically in certain directions. For example, the life dimension of “career” is located in the north (北) direction. Interestingly, this is where the emperor’s accommodation is located, as well as the accommodation of the “head of the house” in family homes, meaning the provider. On the other hand, the office where the emperor would receive their visitors and ambassadors was located in the south (南) direction, which corresponds to the “fame” dimension. It was also where the families would probably receive their visitors, or would have their shops. The “career” dimension is also related to the element “water” (for the career to run like the water and overcome all obstacles with relative ease) and the “fame” dimension is related to the element “fire” (for their reputation will light up like a bright fire).

As the cardinal points are important, it is not surprising that many cities and regions have a reference to such points in their names. The classic example is Beijing (北京), which literally means north (北) capital (京). Before Beijing, the capital of China was Nanjing (南京), the south (南) capital (京). Hainan (海南) is an island in the south, not very far from Vietnam. Its name literally means sea (海) in the south (南). The references to natural landscapes are also very common. There is a region called Shandong (山东), the mountain (山) in the east (东), and a region called Shanxi (山西), the mountain (山) in the west (西).

This article is part of the BRINGING ACROSS series

“Translation” in different languages comes or is based on the meaning of two similar Latin words which convey the idea of transferring something from A to B… “bringing across”. Every month, a translation challenge is presented according to a keyword.

CHINA SERIES | Beijing: where east meets west

There is a huge avenue running from east to west (and vice-versa), whose midpoint is between Tiananmen Square and the Imperial City (which includes the Forbidden City). Besides these old iconic Chinese symbols, the avenue is full of modern buildings, the kind of buildings we are used to seeing in business districts in Western capitals. In reality, there are modern-Western-style buildings everywhere: airports, train stations, residential buildings, shopping centres. Wherever you look, it looks like you are in a Western city. Those who are expecting to see typical Chinese buildings, with the traditional roofs and characteristic doors, are going to be disappointed. Sure, there are palaces and temples from the old days, which are being preserved, especially for tourism purposes, but otherwise the city has been completely transformed.

The Imperial City, which includes the famous Forbidden City, was constructed at the beginning of the 15th century, together with the Tiananmen Square and the Temple of Heaven, a religious sacrificial place, exclusively for the emperor, located about six kilometres south. All these constructions were made to accommodate the emperor in the then new country’s capital. Until then, China’s capital had been Nanjing, further south. In Beijing, the emperor, his wife, his concubines and all his staff would live behind high walls. The Forbidden City was full of buildings with different purposes and where only authorised people could enter.

Similarly, Chinese families were living in courtyards, that is, the rooms were accessible from a central private courtyard. Just like in Forbidden City, each family house was organised according to the cardinal points. For instance, both the emperor and the head of the family would occupy the northern part of the palace/house. During the 20th century, after the end of the emperor’s era, these “courtyard” houses were demolished to give way to Western-like tall residential buildings. A few neighbourhoods are still standing or were reconstructed, but are exceptions.

The history of China is full of this kind of destruction to construct better or different. The skyline of this city, as its name, has changed several times since it was founded. Back at the time of Marco Polo, this city was named Dadu and it was under the rule of the Mongol Empire. Its founder, Genghis Khan, was long gone and the empire was being managed by his descendants. Although the majority of the buildings from that time were destroyed, a few are still standing today, like the Bell and Drum Towers. These Towers are located near the Beijing Central Axis (Imperial City – Tiananmen Square – Temple of Heaven), whose urban planning was conceptualised in Marco Polo’s time.

Near Beijing, the Great Wall of China is a man-made wonder. It started as a small endeavour. Many, many centuries ago, warlords and rulers of the northern provinces felt the need to protect themselves from invaders coming further north, like the Mongolians. It did not work, as Mongolians invaded anyway. Truth to be told, at the time, the great wall did not exist, what existed was small walls built by each warlord or ruler. However, Chinese people do not forget and, once the Mongolians were expelled, they not only reinforced the different walls, but they connected them. Although the Great Wall is now continuous, there are sections constructed differently. Some are made of stone, others made of earth. Some are located in the desert, others follow steep mountains up and down.

Beijing is not in danger of being invaded anymore. However, just in case, China has modernised its military forces and every now and then holds a grand military parade on the avenue between the former Imperial City and Tiananmen Square. The Chinese armed forces may still use Sun Tzu teachings, like the high level of discipline of its troops, but they also study the Western tactics and have developed Western equipment. Interestingly, in the last military parade, despite the fact that it had shown great military power, they also pledged for peace in the world.

Actually, the Chinese government believes, and it is working on it, that only peace can bring economic prosperity and economic prosperity is what makes the government pay for their military power as well as assure the improvement of the population’s living conditions. Since China has adopted Western trade models, the economic development has been astonishing. Scientific development has also been astonishing. However, unlike Western societies, scientific development aims to support economic development. The Chinese government invests in what will be more profitable and, when it does, the breakthroughs happen at breakneck speed. For example, the investment in green and sustainable technology is deeply changing the country in a very short period of time. Furthermore, technology is being adopted by the entire population: it is not possible anymore to pay in cash or debit/credit card, only through an app installed on the mobile phone (which means, everyone has at least one mobile phone). The only people paying in cash are tourists in designated tourist shops.

Nevertheless, international economic development is dependent on international reputation and nothing shows how efficient and respecting other cultures a country is as organising big events like the Olympic Games. So, Beijing set itself to organise not one, but two Olympic Games: Summer Olympics in 2008 and Winter Olympics in 2022. They did not merely organise a flawless event, they planned jaw-dropping ceremonies and built iconic facilities. The Bird Nest (the National Stadium) and the Water Cube (the National Aquatics Centre) have become landmarks.

Has Beijing lost their cultural identity? Well, no. They are still following the same principles and Confucian teachings from thousands of years ago, but with new clothing.

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This article is part of the FOREIGN LANDS series

Foreign Lands aims to discuss the difference between languages and cultural backgrounds.

Key place: CHINA | “The Art of War”, by Sun Tzu

For thousands of years, rulers and governments have used war to reach their political goals. Warfare has evolved, and still does even today, with new tactics and new equipment, although it has developed differently in each country or region. “The Art of War” was written in China, in the 5th century, in a time of chaos. These strategies were game-changing and all kings who used them added territory to their realms. Later, the book left China and travelled the world. Nowadays, it is part of the military curricula of many countries and it is even used in other areas, such as business.

The 5th century was a turning point in warfare. In Europe, the mighty and invincible Roman army was becoming weak and vulnerable. The great Roman Empire, which ruled Europe for about 500 years, had been founded on the fear of his army. They were disciplined and would train intensively, having some manoeuvres planned to defend and attack. In the meantime, in China, battles were unfolding according to some chivalrous-kind-of-rules, where war was more like a game than a way to get a victory.

Sun Tzu changed all that. He viewed war from a strategic perspective and not only as a clash of powerful and bloodthirsty men. Besides discipline, which Sun Tzu thought was essential, he believed that soldiers had to be competently guided, according to a bigger picture. “Little” details like the terrain, the weather, supply lines, the strengths and weaknesses of the enemy, needed to be analysed carefully and decisions on the field should be based on such information. Instead of finding a way to kill as many soldiers as possible, the idea was to apply techniques that would undermine the opponent even before the battle would start. War was, thus, the last resource and should be fought in accordance with other initiatives that would lead to the final and total victory.

Unfortunately, we are currently going back to war time. Therefore, there are many military commentators on different TV channels explaining what is going on in different battle fields. If we pay attention, we will notice that many of the strategies they talk about are exactly what Sun Tzu discussed 1500 years ago. For example, tanks cannot circulate through a forest and the battlefield gets muddy in the rainy season [Chapter 10, about the terrain conditions]. This shapes decisions on how to attack the enemy. When Napoleon marched his army into Russian, he did not consider the weather (it was freezing and the soldiers did not have warm enough clothes) nor the terrain (they got stuck in mud). Besides, the army distanced themselves from their supply chains. Therefore, many men were lost on the way to Moscow. This is the opposite of what is stated in Chapter 7 about getting the army as a whole to the final destination.

Sometimes we hear about cities that are won (or lost) by one side of the conflict. The strategic importance can be related, for example, to the terrain (if it is situated on high ground, for instance) or their intersection to supply chains. Attacks on troops’ supply lines and on energy facilities aim to demoralize soldiers and the civilian population. However, in Chapter 3, Sun Tzu states that attacking cities is not advisable at all. Therefore, the best option can be to choose other alternatives. The Battle of Stalingrad, in World War II, is a good example of what could happen if a city is attacked. In that Chapter, Sun Tzu also talks about the ratio of the number of men in each army and what to do in every situation. For example, if the number of enemy soldiers is much greater, the army should retreat without fighting. Otherwise, all men would be dead. What happened in Dunkirk during World War II illustrates this.

Preparation is key and information gathering is paramount to get to know the enemy very well, especially their strengths and weaknesses. Chapter 1 discusses how to get duly ready for war and how to deceive our opponent, making the population ready to support the government and the army. Modern campaigns are also based on years of preparation. Every time we hear about an attack, we also hear commentators saying how many years that attack took to be planned in detail. Propaganda is widely used, especially through media, to get the population on the government’s side (this is valid, of course, for both sides of the conflict).

Chapter 13 refers to spies and how to distinguish them. The information collected by them can be useful for preparation and also to follow what the enemy is doing during the war. There was no more fertile time for spies than the Cold War. They were literally everywhere. All the types of spies mentioned by Sun Tzu were employed by every country (and they still exist, more than we realise).

In a nutshell, “The Art of War” was so complete that current situations were already included in this 1500-year-old publication. Hence its ongoing success.

Sources:

”The Art of War”, by Sun Tzu and translated by Samuel B. Griffith
Article: “Sun-Tzu”, by Joshua J. Mark (World History Encyclopedia)

This article is part of the THE INTREPID BOOK SOCIETY series

The Intrepid Book Society is a fictional book club. Every month, a book (or more) is recommended and/or discussed according to a keyword.

The Silk Road great adventure: past and present

When Nicole Anna got married, she probably thought she would have a family life beside her husband. Maybe things went wrong with the marriage, maybe her husband did not love her enough, or maybe he just loved adventure too much. We do not know. The fact is that, as soon as she got pregnant, Niccolò left her and their unborn child and departed (ran away?) to Constantinople with his brother and business partner Maffeo. When the child was born in 1254, they were already establishing themselves in the new city, where they stayed for three years.

At that time, Venice was an independent republic and an international trade hub, intermediating commercial exchanges between the East and the West. Most (or maybe all) of its population was living from international trade, directly or indirectly. Nicole Anna had married a wealthy merchant from Venice and moved to his palazzo, where she ended up living alone, taking care of their child. If she hoped Niccolò would come home after setting up his trading post in Constantinople, she would be disappointed.

At some point, the situation in Constantinople went badly, but Niccolò and Maffeo did not return to Venice. They closed their business there and moved further and further East, exploring precious routes in the pursuit of many riches and new endeavours. By the time Niccolò finally came home, his wife had died and his son was already a teenager, with a good education that had been provided by his uncle and aunt. For some reason, Niccolò decided to depart again, but this time he took his son Marco with him. During the next twenty years, they travelled extensively all the way to China, India, and Indonesia. Besides setting up trading posts and doing business, they ran away from wars and served as diplomats to kings.

The return to Venice was not pacific. A war was being waged and Marco ended up in prison. There, he met Rustichello to whom he told his adventures in far away and exotic lands. Rustichello decided to write them down and the first and probably most famous book about the Silk Road was published. It was a bestseller at the time and made Marco Polo world and timelessly famous.

The Silk Road was, in reality, a network of different routes by land and by sea (these also known as spice routes) used by travelling merchants. The name was coined only in the 19th century and it referred to the most precious merchandise traded. However, many other goods were exchanged, some coming from the West and others coming from the East. For centuries, these trading paths were privileged ways not only to exchange merchandise, but also to exchange knowledge: linguistic, scientific, cultural, artistic, and even religious. Cities along these roads were full of life… and money. Beautiful and magnificent buildings were constructed, many of them are still standing, marking and remembering a golden period in time.

With so much happening in the East, it is no wonder that the Polo family was fascinated and drawn to this adventurous and diversified world. In comparison, life in Venice was quite monotonous, despite this city being at the time a very much cosmopolitan city. Rustichello’s book, nowadays named as “Marco Polo – The Travels”, reflects the image Europeans had about the East: strange, but seductive, full of exotic animals, of people with bizarre habits and beliefs, of rulers always at war with their neighbours. Yet, it also shows us respect for other cultures.

After 1,500 years, the Silk Routes were closed in 1453 by the Ottoman Empire. Europeans immediately started to look for another way to continue the trade with the East. Hence, the Age of Discovery and the many maritime routes to India, China, and Japan. In the meantime, they also found the Americas and a whole “new” world of opportunities was opened. This led to colonialism and the division of the world between the “developed” countries and the “poor” countries (the now ex-colonies).

Yet, the Silk Road is still a reference, especially due to its multiculturalism. The trade was made between merchants of different countries and different cultures with the only aim of getting the best deal possible. They did not have any political intentions or desire to dominate other folks. They did not have any power either. In fact, the routes were built by the travelling merchants, according to the conditions they would find.

Inspired by this, the government of China decided to revive the old network in a modern way 560 years later. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) aims to reconstruct some of the old routes by land (through Central Asia to Europe) and by sea (towards India and Africa) and build new ones, for example to Chancay, in Peru (America). The investment in infrastructures, namely ports and train lines/stations, in different countries is part of this strategy. Like in the Roman Empire, where all roads would lead to Rome, these connections aim to be linked to one major hub: China.

Contrary to the original Silk Routes, these paths are designed by a single country with national strategic plans in sight. Besides trade, China is looking to gain other advantages. Security is one of them, building military bases alongside the civil infrastructures. For example, the Djibouti port, strategically located at one end of the Suez Canal, serves both goals. Extending diplomatic relations is another objective. As China is willing to pay for the bills, it expects countries to be loyal to them. However, it is not just about infrastructures. China also provides other services, like healthcare. For instance, the Chinese Navy has a hospital ship (called “Silk Road Ark”) that travels through the BRI routes providing healthcare services for free. China gives back as much as it takes, in a win-win mentality.

When Marco Polo returned to Venice after twenty years, he had turned into a man of almost forty years-old. Contrary to his father, he got married and stayed in his hometown, becoming a wealthy merchant and raising three kids. If he lived nowadays, he probably wouldn’t leave his country for so long. There are airplanes and online conference services that make travel and communication much easier. He probably wouldn’t be an individual merchant, would probably have a company and sign contracts with other Chinese companies… and companies from other parts of the world. And he probably wouldn’t live in Venice, but maybe in Rotterdam. The way to do business and connect with other countries would be different, but the respect to multiculturalism would remain the same.

For more information:

In January this year, the island Santorini in Greece was shaken for a month by multiple earthquakes. Panic took over, especially because no one knew what was going on. Finally, scientists came up with the explanation.

Check the website daily to read the highlight of the day.

A book about translation: “Babel”, by R. F. Kuang

The mother of a Chinese child dies. A stranger takes the little boy to London to give him an education. The boy goes with the stranger because he is suffering and there is nothing left for him in his hometown. The boy changes his name and becomes an Englishman. His tutor enrolls him in a special university in order for him to get a degree in translation. And there is where things turn sour. A secret organization, the true nature of his work as a translator, the return to his hometown, the bond with his friends, all collides in a spectacular and unexpecting ending.

The author R.F. Kuang built a fantastic story, full of magic, taking place during the last period of the British Empire when Britain went into war with China. Having researched the Opium Wars for her first book “The Poppy War”, she based her main character on a Chinese-born boy living in Canton a few years before the First Opium War began. In the book, he will later have a crucial role in that, in a scene inspired by real events and real people. The trade of silver was an essential part of the trade relationship between China and the British Empire and R.F. Kuang uses it in a creative way to tell the story of “Babel”. Furthermore, the real violence and exploration of the colonies by the British is at the heart of the whole story and is fundamental for the final outcome.

A translator herself, R.F. Kuang centres the action in the Royal Institute of Translation, a university in Oxford, UK. This fictional university is located in a fictional tower named Babel and their graduates are destined to fulfil key positions within the empire. The Babel Tower is part of a biblical story. It tells the tale of how humanity tried to build a tower to reach Heaven. God got angry and punished them by giving a different language to different people so the construction would be stopped and people would depart to different parts of the world.

Read more about…

QUIZ

1. Why is silver so important in the story?

2. What is the role his tutor wants Robin Swift to play at the university?

3. What do students do on the top floor of the tower?

4. In Canton, the Chinese city’s administrator makes his decision based on:

5. What happens to Victoire?

Check the solutions here.

W. Eugene Smith was the photographer who initiated what is now known as photo essay. His best photo stories include “The Pacific War: 1942-1945” and “Country Doctor”. After passing away on October 15, 1978, W. Eugene Smith Fund was founded to carry on his legacy.

Check the website daily to read the highlight of the day.

World Globalization

Every year, Heads of State and/or their representatives (for example, Foreign Affairs Ministers) travel to the headquarters of the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) for the opening of its annual session. Besides high-level meetings and events, the week includes the General Debate, where all 193 countries integrating the UN have the opportunity to make a speech to the General Assembly.

In the UN General Assembly all countries are equal and each represents one vote. Of the 193 countries, 130 (67%) were colonized by European countries. Of these 130 countries, 45% (58 countries) were colonized by the United Kingdom (UK) and 18% (24 countries) by France. The other 48 countries were colonized by both, by other countries, or by more than one other country. To be noted that the UK and France are 2 of the 5 permanent members of the UN Security Council and have the right of veto.

The General Debate speeches this year clearly shows a division between the countries:

Group 1

Group 2: Those defending peace (ending all conflicts through diplomacy) and thankful for the work of the UN, which have been helping their countries overcome their struggles and challenges (mainly related to climate change and the improvement of their population’s living conditions). They are fierce defenders of the UN, stating, however, that the seats at the table are unevenly distributed.

Colonization is still an open wound. Ex-colonies have many complaints regarding ex-colonizers, of interference in their sovereignty and financial aid that keeps them in poverty. However, these countries, that fought and successfully achieved their independence, are not giving up. They are finding ways (most of them as alternatives to those provided by the Western countries) to solve their problems. Organizations aiming at international collaboration are being established between them and funding in alternating channels is being sought for their innovative projects.

The United States of America (USA) is leading Group 1. In his speech, which lasted for 56 minutes, the President of the USA stressed the need for protectionism, threats, and war (both domestically and internationally). No country was spared: all of them were on a wrong path, according to him, especially in what climate change was concerned. He also stated that the UN was useless.

China, leading Group 2, made a point to contradict the USA’s statement. In 20 minutes, the Premier of the State Council of China advocated for peace, international cooperation, and the need to fight climate change. Although recognizing that the UN is in need of a reform, especially to distribute more seats to non-Western countries at the table, he reinforced how important the role of the UN is to the world. He also showed that alternatives to the Western rules and initiatives are being developed. In sheer contrast to the USA’s statement, China summarized their achievements on the path to peace, international cooperation, and fight against climate change. The Premier of the State Council said:

As a founding member of the UN, China has all along taken an active part in Global Affairs and worked for the betterment of humanity. Over the years, President Xi Jinping has put forward the vision of building a community with a shared future for humanity: the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative, the Global Civilizacional Initiative, and the Global Governance Initiative.

The fact that Heads of State from 193 countries can make a speech at the same podium shows that the UN is a place where everyone can have a voice. Whether that voice is heard or not by the other countries is another matter. Countries from Group 1 do not listen to anything but their own voices whereas countries from Group 2 pay attention to everything everyone is saying… and they learn. Interestingly, the UN principles were set by the countries of Group 1, but they are followed and advocated by the countries of Group 2. Countries from Group 1 vowed never again to go down the very same path they are walking on now. And countries from Group 2 are warning them to leave that path and go back.

As it was repeated abundantly in the General Debate, this year marks the 80th year of the end of World War II and the establishment of the UN Charter. German Nazism and Italian fascism were defeated by France, Russia (then Soviet Union), the UK, and the USA in Europe (with repercussions to the rest of the world due to the colonies) and Japanese fascism was defeated by China in Asia (with repercussions to neighbouring countries). These victorious countries are the permanent members of the UN Security Council with the right to veto and the ones that created the UN Charter and defined the rules for its implementation and operation.

Since then, many countries were divided into more countries and many colonies gained their independence. In 1945, of the 193 current UN countries, 91 countries (47%) were still under the sovereignty of one or more founding members as colonies, protectorates or under a UN trusteeship. These countries have a total of 30,556,569 km2 of surface area, which correspond to 23% of the total surface area of all 193 UN countries (which is 133,663,404 km2).

Of these 91 countries, 67 countries (74%) were under the direct administration of the UK (45 countries, 49%) and France (22 countries, 24%). The other 24 countries (26%) were under the administration of the UK together with France and/or other countries, the USA (3 countries), or the direct administration of other countries. On the other hand, when the Soviet Union collapsed, 12 countries (6% of the total of the current UN countries) gained their independence. As the Russian Federation was the “heir” of what was left from the Soviet Union, in a way these 12 countries were under Russian administration. This means that 82 countries out of the current 193 countries were, in 1945, integrated in 4 (out of 5) of the permanent members of the UN Security Council. It corresponds to a total of 22,671,758 km2 of surface area, 17% of the total surface area of the 193 current UN countries

As we can see, the world has changed. Or, better yet, the political world has changed. Nature is still the same, resources are still in the same place. Yet, those precious resources have changed hands. Until 1945, the world was divided between those that would provide the resources (the colonies) and those that would transform the resources and get wealthier and wealthier. Now that the ex-colonies are independent, they are looking to learn how to transform their own resources and create wealth. And the wealthier countries are losing ground.

Of the 49 remaining UN founding countries (Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia gave rise to new countries), 22 countries are from America (45%), 12 countries are from Europe (25%), 9 countries are from Asia (18%), 4 countries are from Africa (8%), and 2 countries are from Oceania (4%). Now, in 2025, 54 countries are from Africa (28%), 47 countries are from Asia (24%), 43 countries are from Europe (22%), 35 countries are from America (18%), and 14 countries (7%) are from Oceania. It is obvious that the weight of African countries has shifted. Actually, the weight of African countries in the UN grew from 4 countries to 54 countries, which corresponds to a 1150% increase in representation. Oceania is the second continent with the greatest increase: from only 2 countries to 14 countries, it had a 600% increase in representation. Asia increased 422% and Europe increased 258%. America was the continent with the smallest increase: 59%.

Due to the loss of their colonies, the UK and France have considerably shrunk their territory and influence in the world. Their surface area is 242,495 km2 (UK) and 551,500 (France), which corresponds to 0.2% and 0.4%, respectively, of the total surface areas of all 193 UN countries. On the other hand, Russian Federation is still the largest country in the world (17,098,246 km2 of surface area, which corresponds to 13% of the total surface areas of all 193 UN countries), even after the collapse of the Soviet Union, and it remains an important player in world politics. The USA is the third largest country in the world (with 9,833,517 km2, which corresponds to 7% of the total surface areas of all 193 UN countries) while China is the fourth (with 9,600,000 km2, which corresponds to 7% of the total surface areas of all 193 UN countries).

Therefore, the 5 permanent members of the UN Security Council (those with the right to veto) have together a surface area of 37,325,758 km2, corresponding to 28% of the total surface areas of all 193 UN countries. African countries have a total of 30,023,968 km2 (22%). If the surface areas of Oceania countries (a sum of 8,488,032km2, corresponding to 6% of the total) are added, then these two continents surpass the 5 permanent members of the Security Council because they have 29% of the total.

Europe includes the Russian Federation in its statistics. However, and considering that most of Russian territory is in fact located in Asia (Siberia), if we take out Russian surface area from Europe’s, the sum of the surface area of all other countries is 5,886,912 km2, corresponding to 4% of the total surface areas of all 193 UN countries. European countries, especially the UK and France, which used to rule the world, are now facing their real dimension. It is scary and it is no wonder they are trying their best to remain relevant. Unfortunately, their continued arrogance is not doing them any favors. In the meanwhile, the USA is relying on their wealth and military power to keep its hegemony, but the Russian Federation and, especially, China have already understood the figures. And the figures are saying that African countries, together with the islands in the Pacific, all the countries south of the USA, and China’s Asian neighbours are rising. Independence was just the first step. Now, they are climbing the other steps, regardless of having the support or the opposition of their former masters.

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World domination

Thucydides is considered the “father” of history because of his book “The History of the Peloponnesian War”, which he wrote in the 5th century. Besides describing the war itself, in which he was an active participant, he also describes the context and behind-the-scenes political manoeuvres, portraits both sides of the conflict, and makes other considerations. The book is not finished, but the story of this war is known. In a nutshell, the Peloponnesian War was a conflict between a declining power (Sparta, home of the famous 300) and an emerging power (Athens). They were both fighting for world domination, which, in this case, was Greece.

Graham Allison studied Thucydides’ book and compared what was written there with other similar conflicts. Then, he coined the term “Thucydides’ Trap” to explain the phenomenon theoretically (which is to say, academically). His goal was to understand how the rising of China could impact the world and lead to a war with the USA. The conclusions were presented in two TED Talks: one in 2018 and the other in 2021. Graham Allison was born in the USA, thus, a national of the current challenged world power, but he has been working with Chinese academics to develop the concept and apply it.

The question Graham Allison posed was: is war inevitable in the fight for world domination? And the answer is: no. Looking at the last 500 years, he concluded that 4 out of 16 confrontations of this kind did not end in war. Will this be the case between the USA and China? Nobody knows. The USA seems to want the war, but China does not. The USA does not want to lose their dominant position in the world, but will they manage it? The truth is: no empire ever survived. They all ended at some point.

Maybe the most original solution to avoid war was the one found between the Kingdom of Portugal (the declining power) and the Kingdom of Spain (the rising power) in the 15th century. The Age of Discovery had been initiated by the Portuguese at the beginning of the 15th century and the Spaniards soon followed them. Both Kingdoms were competing for routes and even for captains to lead expeditions to what would come to be “the new world”. After tough diplomatic negotiations, the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in 1494. It basically divided the whole world into two parts. This was only applied to “newly found” lands (basically, everywhere outside Europe). Obviously, native people were not consulted and the other European powers soon would contest this bilateral agreement.

The line separating the world was established based on the map of the known world. For example, Brazil had not been “discovered” yet and “luckily” fell under Portuguese domain (some say the Portuguese knew about it before signing the Treaty). Before the Age of Discovery, the known world for Europeans was basically Europe and North Africa, which was what Romans tried to dominate. Beyond that, “there would be dragons”. “Here be dragons” is an expression it is believed was written on old maps to indicate a land that was unexplored and unknown. Little evidence of the veracity of this exists, but what is certain is that maps would often include images of monsters to mark uncharted places.

Usually, domination of the world means a State taking land from the known territories around its initial borders. The image we see in films of one evil mastermind, plotting ways to rule us all and surrounded by loyal followers who do whatever he/she commands, is very far from the truth. However, one man did it. Alexander, the Great, was a restless man who wanted to explore (and govern) all land. He started in Macedonia, passed Greece and Turkey and went down to Egypt. Then, he came back up, and continued through Iraq until he reached India. There, he wanted to keep going, but his army said enough. Climate and geographic conditions made the progression too painful.

Geography matters for matters of world domination, as world leaders (past and current) are well aware. The Chinese general Sun Tzu wrote in his book “The Art of War” how geography, climate, and demographics must be taken into consideration for a successful win in each battle. Invasions, for example, are easier in flatlands (like those in Ukraine) than if one has to overcome a mountain rage (Iran is surrounded by mountains). That is what Tim Marshall explains in his books about geopolitics: “Prisoners of Geography” and “The Power of Geography”.

Let’s take a look at the case of Russia, mentioned by Tim Marshall in the first book. The Rus people initially settled around Kiev and the Dnipro River, but, after being invaded by the Mongols from the south and the east, moved their capital to Moscow. As their land had been founded on a plain, it was highly vulnerable to other invasions (which happened several times for centuries). They realized that the best option was to expand their territory. This is called “strategic depth”: the longer the enemy would have to “walk” from the border to the capital, the further away their supply lines are and the more defensive lines they would have to overcome. This was a lesson that Napoleon’s French army and Hitler’s German army learned the hard way when they decided to invade Russia. Not only did they have to “walk” a very long distance, they also had to deal with the weather, especially snow or mud. This was the “west front”. In the meantime, to avoid invasions from the east and the south, the Russians conquered the Siberia region, thus eliminating the Mongols’ threat (or any other threat from that part of the world). In the north, there was the Arctic, so nothing to worry about (yet). Russia may not rule the world, but it is currently the biggest country in the world and definitely has a huge influence on East Europe and Asia.

Just as Portugal and Spain divided the world in two, so Russia (then the Soviet Union, integrating many other countries nearby) and the USA also divided their influence in two throughout the world. If there was a conflict, the Soviet Union would support one side and the USA would support the other side. When in peace, the countries would be an ally whether to one great power or to the other. Therefore, each great power dominated half the world.

The Cold War was prolific in books, films, and TV series (back then and nowadays still) about State espionage, world domination, end of the world, or the hero who saves the world of total destruction at the last minute. The films of James Bond were (and are) probably the most famous and had all of these ingredients. They were based on the books of Ian Fleming, a former MI6 secret agent who was in active duty during World War II. Based on himself and his work, he wrote 12 novels and 2 short stories where James Bond is the lone hero who fights against the evil organization SPECTRE. Started as a relatively small terrorist organization, at some point the goal became to dominate the world. Obviously, it was defeated by… James Bond!

Then, the Soviet Union fell and the USA became the indisputable ruler of the world… Indisputable? Well, not so fast. There have been many countries wishing to overthrow it. As all Empires before it, the USA Empire is supported by a mighty military force, which imposes the country’s will everywhere, crushing those who stand in their way. Yet, there are still people (or States) daring to defy them.

We can see a shift in books, films, and TV series. Now, the “bad guys” are no longer Russians. Now, they are Arabic and Chinese. The focus has changed as well. We see more terrorist attacks, sabotage acts, and, especially, cyber threats. Contrary to what happened in the Cold War, there is no need to have human spies in the enemy country. Everything goes online and the “new spies” do not need to leave their home. Today, world domination is cyber dominance and warfare is “hybrid warfare”. Most of the time, “normal” people do not see it at all and the perpetrators can easily deny their wrongdoings. The war that is actually “seen” is mainly made with drones, which can be remotely controlled. So, nowadays, it is not enough to have a mighty military force and physically invade the surrounding territories. Besides an Army to dominate the land, you need a Navy to dominate the seas, an Air Force to dominate airspace… and an excellent cybersecurity department to dominate the virtual world.

China has understood this a long time ago. It has not only heavily invested in technology, but also in the military forces. Their focus is on trade, establishing partnerships with countries from every continent. President Xi Jinping has repeatedly said that China does not want to dominate the world, China wants a multipolar world living in peace and where countries can work together for the benefit of humankind. Naturally, China is making great profits from their trading deals… Since 1978, when they decided to open the country to international trade, China’s economic and social evolution has left the world in astonishment. It is still a communist country, but it has learned how to play the capitalist rules for their own benefit. Little by little, they have been gaining ground in other countries’ economies, like ninjas. No one saw them coming. Or, better yet, they did see them, but they thought they would submit to the ruling power. They did not.

President Donald Trump, who took office in January this year, has declared a (trade) war with China. Not so explicitly, but that is his goal. He is cleaning all other matters to focus on this particular subject. Graham Allison often quotes Thucydides on this: “It was the rise of Athens and the fear that this instilled in Sparta that made war inevitable”. Is the USA afraid of the rise of China? If you ask them, they would answer “no, the USA is afraid of nothing and no one”. But still, they want to bring down China just in case they might think they can overthrow the USA as the world master. China has been preparing itself for this combat for many years and the odds, as we can conclude from history, are against the USA.